Juniperus Sp. - Juniper

• Family: Cupressaceae - Cypress Family ^[E-flora]

"Shrub, tree; generally dioecious. Stem: bark thin, peeling in strips; young shoots 4-angled to cylindric. Leaf: opposite (4-ranked) or whorled in 3s (6-ranked), scale-like to less often awl- or needle-like. Pollen cone: generally terminal; pollen sacs 2–6 per scale. Seed cone: generally terminal, 5–18 mm, ± spheric, ± fleshy, berry-like, glaucous or not, dry or resinous, generally maturing 2nd year, surrounded at base by minute scale-like bracts; scales 3–8, fused, opposite or whorled in 3s. Seed: 1–3 per cone, ± flat, unwinged, often not angled, generally animal-dispersed over 2 years; cotyledons 2–6.
67 species, 28 var.: northern hemisphere except northeastern Africa. (Latin: juniper) [Adams & Nguyen 2007 Phytologia 89:43–57; Adams et al. 2006 Phytologia 88:299–309]
Unabridged references: [Adams 2004 Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus. Trafford Publ., Vancouver]" ^[Jepson]

TAXONOMIC KEY TO JUNIPERUS

• 1. Leaves awl-shaped, in whorls of 3, spreading; the berrylike fruits sessile in the leaf axils J. communis
  
• 1. Leaves mostly scalelike, opposite, appressed to stem; the berrylike-like fruits terminal on the branchlets.
  
  • 2. Low, spreading or creeping shrubs; fruits recurved on short stalks J. horizontalis
    
  • 2. Small trees or erect shrubs; fruits erect or nodding J. scopulorum
    

Note that since the publication of the Illustrated Flora, new species have been added to the BC flora, and are not incorporated in the keys.^[E-flora]

Local Species;

1. Juniperus communis - common juniper ^{[E-flora][PCBC][TSFTK]}
2. Juniperus maritima - seaside juniper ^[E-flora]
3. Juniperus scopulorum - Rocky Mountain juniper ^{[PCBC][E-flora]}

Common Juniper - Juniperus communis

Family: Cupressaceae - Cypress Family
Other Names: Ground juniper ^[E-flora]

Abortifacient, irritant (oil), Fruit, Spice, Essential Oil, Incense, Wood, Fiber, Diuretic, Antiseptic, Digestive Aid, Rheumatism

Synonyms

• Juniperus albanica. ^[PFAF]
• Juniperus argaea. ^[PFAF]
• Juniperus compressa. ^[PFAF]
• Juniperus kanitzii. ^[PFAF]

Identification
"Juniperus communis is an evergreen Shrub growing to 9 m (29ft) by 4 m (13ft) at a slow rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 2 and is not frost tender. It is in leaf 12-Jan It is in flower from May to June, and the seeds ripen in October. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by Wind. The plant is not self-fertile.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid and very alkaline soils.
It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure." ^[PFAF]

General: Sprawling, evergreen shrub, 0.5-3.0 m tall; bark very thin, reddish-brown, shredding and scaly.^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Leaves: Needle-like, with whitish channel on upper surface, (5) 7-12 (19) mm long, in whorls of three on stem. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Cones: Seed cones fleshy, berrylike, egg-shaped to globose, 6-9 mm long, green in first year, ripening in second year to bluish black; pollen and seed cones on separate plants. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
USDA Flower Colour: Yellow
USDA Blooming Period: Mid Spring
USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics:

• Colour: Blue
• Present from Summer to Fall
• According to the USDA, this species is a known allelopath. ^{[USDA-E-flora]}

Habitat / Range
"Dry slopes and open forests to wet coastal muskeg in the lowland to alpine zones; common throughout BC; circumpolar, N to AK, E to NF and S to CA, AZ, NM, and GA; Eurasia." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]

Hazards

• Renal Damage from Overconsumption: "Although the fruit of this plant is quite often used medicinally and as a flavouring in various foods and drinks, large doses of the fruit can cause renal damage. Juniper should not be used internally in any quantities by pregnant women[65, 165]. Diarrhoea with repeated use. Avoid in kidney disease. Do not use internally for more than 6 weeks [301].^"[PFAF] "Juniper berries (Juniperus communis; Cupressaceae) contain terpine-4-ol which may cause kidney irritation and damage in excess [89]." ^{[Kuete TSAMP]}
• "No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages. Long-term internal administration or overdosage can bring about kidney irritation and kidney damage. External administration for large skin wounds, acute skin diseases, feverish diseases, cardiac insufficiency or hypertonia should only take place under the supervision of a doctor." ^[PDR]
• Irritant (oil): "The volatile oil is reported to be generally non-sensitising and non-phototoxic, although slightly irritant when applied externally to human and animal skin.(G41,G58) Dermatitic reactions have been recognised with juniper and positive patch test reactions have been documented.(15,G51) The latter are attributed to the irritant nature of the juniper extract.(15) Adverse effects following external application of the essential oil are described as burning, erythema, inflammation with blisters and oedema.(G22)" ^[HerbalMed3]
• Contraindications:
  • Abortifacient: "The fruits should not be used internally by pregnant women since this can cause an abortion[9]. The fruits also increase menstrual bleeding so should not be used by women with heavy periods[254]." ^{[PFAF] "}In the guise of the drink distilled from the berries (though an infusion made from the whole plant is an alternative that has had its followers), members of the genus Juniperus have long enjoyed a reputation as abortifacients. This use has been dubiously ascribed to the Doctrine of Signatures, on the argument that a plant so often conspicuously sterile itself must have been placed on this earth for human beings to have the benefit of the special property that that implied. Widely known as savin, a name which strictly speaking belongs to a related species native to other parts of Europe, J. sabina Linnaeus (which is more potent and toxic), the use of J. communis for this particular purpose is doubtless as ancient as it has been widespread—though much under-reported by folklorists. In Somerset⁸³ and Lincolnshire,⁸⁴ indeed, it is only from suggestive vernacular names that have been employed for it that it can be inferred that it has had some popularity there. In Norfolk⁸⁵ and Galloway,⁸⁶ on the other hand, the evidence for that is more direct. Though drinking an infusion was normally deemed sufficient, the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford has in its collections sprigs of the plant which a local woman was found in 1914 wearing in her boots for nine days, in the belief that as the feet became hot the ‘savin’ soaks through the stockings into the feet and thence into the bloodstream⁸⁷" ^[MPFT] "Not to be used during pregnancy." ^[PDR]
  • "We believe that there is no reason to regard (unoxidized) juniperberry oil as being hazardous. There are two likely reasons why juniperberry oil acquired a ‘tainted’ reputation, which has since been quoted and re-quoted. Firstly, there has been some confusion between juniper (Juniperus communis) and savin (Juniperus sabina)." ^{[Tisserand EOS]}
    • "As an occasional gin imbiber, I found the following of interest, “Normally avoided during pregnancy, mainly because of the notorious reputation of gin, of which juniper is the main flavor ingredient” (PNC). Tisserand (1995), after reviewing the literature, claims to debunk the many authors (including Duke, 1985), cautioning about abortifacient activity of juniper oil. He speculates that they are clouded by the sabine juniper, which apparently does have abortifacient activities. He found few references indicating abortifacient activity for juniper oil, and the references suggested that ethanolic and acetone extracts of juniper berries have antifertility activity in rats. “It seems inconceivable that the juniper oil could be responsible for the reproductive toxicity noted above. There is no reason to regard juniper oil as being hazardous in any way” (Tisserand, R., 1995)..." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • "Contraindications for internal administration include pregnancy and inflammatory renal diseases." ^[PDR] "Contraindicated in nephrosis and pregnancy (CAN). Not for continuous use beyond 4–6 weeks (AHP). Berry permitted" ^{[HMH Duke]} "Juniper is contra-indicated in individuals with acute or chronic inflammation of the kidney.(G76)" ^[HerbalMed3]
  • "Commission E reports contraindications: pregnancy, nephrosis; adverse effects: prolonged use or overdosing may lead to renal damage. Other sources report contraindication: pyelitis (AEH). CAN caution that the volatile oil can be abortifacient and irritant. Because it is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, and because there is confusion of whether the oil is toxic, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Excessive doses of terpinen-4-ol may irritate the kidneys. External application of EO can cause burning, edema, erythema, and inflammation with blisters” (CAN). Long-term use can cause hypocalemia. May also potentiate diuretics and hypglycemics (CAN). Overdose can cause hematuria, priapism, strangury, and uremic convulsions (MAD). “Canadian regulations do not allow juniper as a non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (Michols, 1995). “Herbs with diuretic properties, such as juniper and dandelion, can cause elevations in blood levels of lithium” (D’epiro, 1997)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Drug interactions: "None documented. However, the potential for preparations of juniper to interact with other medicines administered concurrently, particularly those with similar or opposing effects, should be considered. There is limited evidence from preclinical studies that juniper has diuretic and hypoglycaemic effects. Pregnancy and lactation A juniper fruit extract has exhibited abortifacient, antifertility and anti-implantation activities (see Pharmacological Actions, In vitro and animal studies). In view of this, juniper is contra-indicated in pregnancy.(G7, G22, G49) Juniper should not be used during lactation.^{" [HerbalMed3]}

Edible Uses

• Fruit: "Fruit - raw or cooked[2, 5, 9, 15]. It is usually harvested in the autumn when fully ripe and then dried for later use[12]. A soft, mealy, sweet, resinous flesh[82]. The fruit is often used as a flavouring in sauerkraut, stuffings, vegetable pates etc, and is an essential ingredient of gin[183]. The aromatic fruit is used as a pepper substitute according to one report[183]. An essential oil is sometimes distilled from the fruit to be used as a flavouring[183]. Average yields are around 1%[7]. The cones are about 4 - 8mm in diameter and take 2 - 3 years to mature[82, 200]. Some caution is advised when using the fruit, see the notes above on toxicity." ^[PFAF] "The fleshy fruits are used to flavor drinks, particularly gin, and as a spice. The best quality fruits come from Italy, but juniper “berries” are also exported from the former Yugoslavia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. The fruits have been used to adulterate black peppercorns and as a substitute for pepper. Roasted and ground, they were used in parts of Sweden instead of coffee. They were used medicinally in Pharaonic Egypt and by the Greeks and Arabs."^{[Prance TCHP]} "The fruits were boiled, sugar and yeast was added, and the mixture was allowed to ferment three days before being drunk (Lamont, 1977). This practice may have been introduced by French traders, 35 since in France the fruits are fermented with barley to make a beer." ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}
• Seed: The roasted seed is a coffee substitute[177]. A tea is made by boiling the leaves and stems[161]. A tea made from the berries has a spicy gin-like flavour[183]. ^[PFAF]
• Spice: Juniper is an important spice in many European cuisines, especially in the Alpine regions. The blue-black Juniper berries, are too bitter and astringent to eat raw and are usually sold dried and used to flavour meats, game birds, venison, duck, rabbit, pork, ham, lamb, sauces and stuffings. Dried berries are added to vegetable pates, game, venison and marinades. It adds flavour to potatoes, sauerkraut sausages and casseroles. Juniper berry sauce is often a popular flavoring choice for quail, pheasant, veal, rabbit, venison and other meat dishes. Juniper berries should be used sparingly as they impart a strong taste. They are generally crushed before use to release their flavour. Fresh berries are used to make a conserve to accompany cold meats. To make a conserve, the fresh ripe berries are cooked in water till soft and the pulp is crushed. Three times the berries weight equivalent of sugar is added to the berry puree and stirred vigorously and left to cool. The berries are dried and ground and used in the preparation of a mush or cake. The berries are used as a spice to flavour gin, liquers, bitters, Swedish beer and other beverages (tea) and cordials. In Sweden, a beer is made that is regarded as a healthy drink. Incidentally, the word ‘gin’ is derived from the French word for juniper berry, genièvre, which is also the French name for gin. Distilled gin is made by redistilling neutral grain spirit and raw cane sugar which has been flavoured with juniper berries. Juniper berries are also used as the primary flavor in the liquor jenever. Jenever, is the juniper-flavored and strongly alcoholic traditional liquor of the Netherlands, Belgium and Northern France. Borovicka, the Slovak national alcoholic beverage is also flavoured with juniper berry extract. Juniper is the key ingredient of sahti, a traditional Finnish ale made from a variety of cereals, malted and unmalted, including barley, rye, wheat, and oats. The roasted seed can be used as a coffee substitute. Juniper leaves can be used fresh or dried to flavour grilled fish. The wood and leaves can be used on a barbeque to give a subtle flavour to meat. ^[EMNMPV.1]

Other Uses

• Essential Oil: The essential oil distilled from the fruits is used in perfumes with spicy fragrances[238]. ^[PFAF] "Juniper is a powerful antiseptic and used in insecticides and perfumes. Juniper is safely employed as a fragrance in soaps, shampoos, cosmetics, sachets and other products." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • Insect Repellent: "The essential oil of J. communis had good repellant activity against ticks and mosquitoes (Carroll et al. 2011)." ^{[Charles APSH]} "Juniperus communis berry oil is a very good mosquito repellent." ^{[CRC HEO]}
    
• Resin: In hot countries the tree yields the resin 'Sandarac' from incisions in the trunk[4, 74]. This is used in the production of a white varnish[74].^[PFAF] "A terebinthinate juice exudes from the tree and hardens on the bark. This has been erroneously considered as identical with the gum known commercially as sandarach." ^{[Remington USD20]}
• Fumigant/Incense: "The stems were at one time used as a strewing herb to sweeten the smell of rooms[14, 244]. The whole plant can be burnt as an incense and fumigant[66, 102, 146]. It was used during epidemics in the belief that it would purify the air and cleanse it of infection[244]." ^[PFAF] "Another, certainly ancient use of juniper (for this was recommended by Hippocrates) was as a fumigant. The green branches, and in some cases the berries, too, were burnt to purify the air in sick-rooms or to prevent an infection from spreading, a practice recorded from as far apart as Devon96 and Colonsay in the Inner Hebrides.97 In Devon, people in contact with a contagious disease are known to have chewed the berries as an extra precaution.98" ^[MPFT] "In the Poonch District of India, where the name for this plant is bitru, the leaves were burned as incense (Kirn et al. 2000)." Juniperus communis L. var. depressa; "This species was burned to fumigate and air-out sickrooms (Trousseau and Pidoux" 1841).^[UAPDS]
  • "A shamanic incense with psychoactive effects can be mixed using equal parts of hemp flowers, the tips of juniper branches (Juniperus communis L., Juniperus recurva, Juniperus spp.), thyme (Thymus spp.), and wild rosemary (Ledum palustre)." ^{[Ratsch EPP]}
• Branches: "Fresh or dried juniper branches also make a good insect repellent[102, 172]. A decoction of the branches is used as an anti-dandruff shampoo[172]." ^[PFAF]
• Wood: "Wood - strong, hard, fragrant, very durable in contact with the soil and very close-grained, but usually too small to be of much use[82, 229, 244, 245]. It makes an excellent fuel[66]." ^[PFAF] "The wood is fine grained, durable, and reddish with white sapwood but posses no commercial value. It has been reported to be used for fuel (especially for pellet-stoves), fire-wood, fence-posts, cement and particle boards, wall board, cordwood housing, parquet, paper, chemical derivatives, activated carbon and small wood items. In Scandinavia, juniper wood is used for making containers for storing small quantities of dairy products such as butter and cheese and also for making wooden butter knives. Juniper wood is resistant to fungal decay and insects even when exposed to the soil. This resinous wood yields much more tar than drier ones. Therefore, juniper wood should make an excellent wood preservative." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • "The aromatic wood still is prized for chests because people think it repels insects. Porcher (1863) wrote: “The wood of this tree is well known. It is sometimes dug up in the mud of our swamps in a perfect state of preservation. It is aromatic, light, soft, bearing exposure to water and weather, and suitable for all kinds of cabinet work, in the construction of posts, staves, the inner work of houses, and particularly in the building of boats. Cedar boxes are not infested by insects, moths, etc., and are used for storing away woollens. The leaves also prevent the attacks of insects when spread over cloth.”" ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
• Cordage & Tinder: "The bark is used as cordage[61] and as a tinder[172]." ^[PFAF] "Bark was used to build houses, wigwams, wickiups, and mats by the Ojibwa (Moerman 1998). They also used shredded bark as padding on cradle boards. The Potawatomi made bags from the fibers (Whitford 1941)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
• Misc:
  • "...They also soaked arrowheads overnight in a solution of mashed berry-laden juniper branches (Juniperus communis) in both hunting and warfare.⁸¹" ^{[David E. Jones]}
    

Medicinal Uses

• Plant:
  • Parts Used: "The medicinal parts are the essential oil from the berry cones; the ripe, dried berry cones; the ripe fresh berry cones; the fresh or dried pseudo fruit or berry; and the ripe berry.... The ripe berries are harvested from the end of August to the middle of September and then dried at room temperature and sorted." ^[PDR]
  • Gum: "The wood and bark were boiled, sometimes for a whole day until the gum was given off, and this was taken as a medicine for short breath and to purify the blood (Boas, 1966)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]}
  • Topical: "In common with other herbs held in especially high esteem, the plant has also attracted a miscellany of apparently more restricted uses: for indigestion in Somerset,99 for skin disorders such as psoriasis in the Westmoreland Pennines[100] and for epilepsy[101] and snakebites[102] in the Highlands." ^[MPFT] "Traditionally, it has been used for cystitis, flatulence, colic, and applied topically for rheumatic pains in joints or muscles.(G2,G7,G64)" ^[HerbalMed3]
  • Dosages:
    • Capsules — 51 5 mg; Liquid — 1:1; Oil — 100% ^[PDR]
    • Daily Dosage: The daily dose is 2 to 1 0 gm of the drug, corresponding to 20 to 100 mg of the essential oil. The duration of use should be limited to a maximum of 6 weeks. A 1:20 dilution infusion (0.5 gm in 1 teacup) may be taken 3 times daily. Tincture (1:5): 1 to 2 ml 3 times daily. Liquid extract: 2 to 4 ml 3 times daily. ^[PDR]
    • For diabetes: 10 freshly ground berries to taken daily with water for 15 days; repeat after a month's break from treatment. ^[PDR]
    • Homeopathic Uses: "5 drops, 1 tablet or 1 0 globules every 30 to 60 minutes (acute) or 1 to 3 times daily (chronic); parenterally: 1 to 2 ml sc acute, 3 times daily; chronic: once daily (HAB1)." ^[PDR]
    • Storage: Juniper should be protected from light.^[PDR]
• Fruit: "Juniper fruits are commonly used in herbal medicine, as a household remedy, and also in some commercial preparations. They are especially useful in the treatment of digestive disorders plus kidney and bladder problems[4].... They are used in the treatment of cystitis, digestive problems, chronic arthritis, gout and rheumatic conditions[254]. They can be eaten raw or used in a tea[222], but some caution is advised since large doses can irritate the urinary passage[4]. Externally, it is applied as a diluted essential oil, having a slightly warming effect upon the skin and is thought to promote the removal of waste products from underlying tissues[254]. It is, therefore, helpful when applied to arthritic joints etc[254]....When made into an ointment, they are applied to exposed wounds and prevent irritation by flies[4]. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is 'Toxin elimination'[210]. ^[PFAF]
  • Diarrhoea: "The berries were boiled with hemlock bark (Tsuga heterophylla), and "roots" of deer fern (Blechnum spicant), and licorice fern (Polypodium glycyrrhiza) and the decoction drunk for diarrhoea (Boas, 1930)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]}
  • Coughs: "Juniper is an American domestic medicine for colds and colic (Bergen. 1899), and Evelyn praised it, “… the berries swallow’d only instantly appease the wind-collic, and in decoction most sovereign against an inveterate cough. They are of rare effect, being stamp’d in beer; and in some northern countries, they use a decoction of the berries as we do coffee and tea”. But this use for coughs is ancient indeed, for “Dioscorides reporteth that this being drunke is a remedie against infirmities of the chest, coughs, windinesse, gripings, and poisons …; the decoction of these berries is singular good against an old cough, and against that with which children are now and again extremely troubled, called the Chin-cough” (Gerard)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Use in Ireland: "In Ireland the juice of the berries has been a traditional diuretic,103 brought to bear specifically on dropsy in Cavan.[104] In Donegal a concoction of them has also been favoured as a stimulant or cleanser of the system.105 And the gathering of them in their white unripe state (caora aitinn), for bottling in whiskey and keeping on hand for ‘ailments’, is even the subject of a special tradition, reserved for the last Sunday in July, among children on Achill Island and the neighbouring Corraun Peninsula, on the coast of Mayo.[106]" ^[MPFT]
  • Use in Pacific Northwest: "The berries were boiled with hemlock bark (Tsuga heterophylla), and "roots" of deer fern (Blechnum spicant), and licorice fern (Polypodium glycyrrhiza) and the decoction drunk for diarrhoea {Boas, 1930)."^{[Turner&Bell]}
  • Diabetes: "Western tribes combined the berries with Berberis root bark in an herbal tea to treat diabetes." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • Rheumatism: "Juniper berry is also used as bath salts in the treatment of rheumatism.^[PDR]
• Oil: "Oil of juniper, a carminative, has also been used in domestic medicine for rheumatism (two or three drops on a lump of sugar every morning) (V G Hatfield. 1994)." ^{[DPL Watts]} "A liniment made from the berries or two or three drops of the oil taken on a lump of sugar also served to ease rheumatism and backache in Devon,⁹² Somerset⁹³ and Norfolk,⁹⁴ its use for teething infants in the Highlands⁹⁵ being perhaps of similar origin." ^[MPFT]
• Misc:
  • Diuretic: ""It has been quite important for medical uses since ancient times, for the berries were commonly used by the Greeks and Romans, as well as by Arab Physicians. The berries and the essential oil from them are said to be diuretic, and the juice from the berries is still used in Irish country medicine as such (Logan). It is also recommended for cystitis (Schauenberg & Paris), and a tea can be made from them, or even small pieces of wood, to be used as a diuretic (Flück). In much the same way, the Cree Indians stewed the berries and ate them for the same purpose (Corlett), and infused the root for cases of gravel." ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Teeth/Breath: ""Pomet noted their ability “to prevent infectious Airs”, in connection with the French habit of his time to “make comfits of [the berries] which they call St Roch’s Comfits, and carry them in their Pockets, that they may chew two or three of them in a Morning, to prevent infection, and make the Breath sweet”. In the Highlands of Scotland, a child cutting its first teeth was given a piece of juniper wood to chew, to prevent toothache, it was said (Polson. 1926). Scottish travellers used it for exactly the same purpose, but they thought there was something in juniper twigs that cut the teeth quicker (MacColl & Seeger).^{" [DPL Watts]}
  • Homeopathic Use: "Juniperus communis is used for discharge disturbances of the efferent urinary tract and dyspeptic complaints." ^[PDR]
  • Unproven Uses: "Juniper is used externally for rheumatic symptoms (as a bath additive). In folk medicine it is used internally to regulate menstruation and to relieve menstrual pain, flushing out therapy for inflammatory diseases of the lower urinary tract, gout, arteriosclerosis, for severe irritation resulting from bronchitis and diabetes (ground juniper berries). It is often chewed for halitosis.^{" [PDR]}
  • The German Commission E approved use for dyspepsia.(G3) ^[HerbalMed3]
    

Pharmacology

• Juniper is stated to possess diuretic, antiseptic, carminative, stomachic and antirheumatic properties. ^[HerbalMed3] "Juniper has been used for its hypoglycemic, antiinfl ammatory, and antimicrobial actions. However, few studies support these uses." ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]} In older studies a spasmogenic, expectorant and bronchospasmolytic effect has been described, for which there are no new data. ^[PDR]
• Abortifacient: "Juniper was reported to cause abortions in pregnant cattle.9 Isocupressic acid is believed to be the primary abortifacient compound in juniper.9 Cows fed juniper needles subsequently aborted after 3–4 days.¹⁰" ^{[Mills HMPL]}
• Fruit: The fully ripe fruits are strongly, aromatic,strongly diuretic and rubefacient ^[PFAF] "Its medicinal attributes include: diuretic, antiseptic, aromatic, rubefacient, stomachic and antirheumatic." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • Antioxidant: "Juniper berries were found to contain 16 different compounds comprising flavonoids, such as isoscutellarein and 8-hydroxyluteolin or hypolaetin glycosides, and six biflavonoids, among them amentoflavone, hynokiflavone, cupressoflavone, and methyl-biflavones (Innocenti et al. 2007). The flavonoid concentration in the berries ranged between 1.46 and 3.79 mg/g of fresh pulp, while the content of the biflavonoids was always lower, varying between 0.14 and 1.38 mg/g of fresh weight. These flavonoids were reported to contribute to the berry’s strong antioxidant activity." ^[EMNMPV.1]
• Leaves:
  • Anticancer: "Juniper leaf extract was found to have anti-cancerous activity (Marongiu et al. 2006). Juniper leaf extract inhibited the proliferation of cell derived from haematological and solid human tumours. It showed the same potency and selectivity as etoposide (an anti-cancer chemotherapy drug) and proved to be 8–100-fold more potent than 6-MP6 (Mercaptopurine, an anti-cancer chemotherapy drug)." ^[EMNMPV.1]
• Volatile Oil: The volatile oil is stated to possess diuretic, gastrointestinal antiseptic and irritant properties.(G41)^[HerbalMed3] The diuretic effect is attributed to the essential oil content. The drug works to lower blood pressure and as an antidiabetic. In animal experiments a hypotensive, antidiabetic and antiexudative effect was proven. In vitro, an antiviral effect was also demonstrated. ^[PDR]
  • "Juniper essential oil was found to have antimicrobial activity (Pepeljnjak et al. 2005). Juniper essential oil showed bactericidal activities against Gram-positive and Gram negative bacteria with MIC values between 8% and 70% (v/v). " ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • "The oil had stronger fungicidal activity with MIC values below 10% (v/v) than bactericidal activity. All the yeast and yeast-like fungi (Candida albicans, Candida krusei, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis, Candida glabrata, Candida kefyr, and Candida lusitaniae) were sensitive to the juniper essential oil." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • "The lowest values of MIC of the essential oil against fungal strains indicated that the main compounds present in the oil-terpene hydrocarbons (pinenes, sabinene, mircene and limonene) had a stronger antifungal than antibacterial activity. Juniper needles are known to be rich in terpenoids and phenolics. Martz et al. (2009) found that the concentration of these compounds increased with latitude and altitude with, however, a stronger latitudinal effect (a higher content of monoterpenoids, proanthocyanidins, and flavonols in northern latitudes)." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • "Analysis of methanolic extracts showed quite good activity against both antibiotic-sensitive and antibioticresistant Staphy lococcus aureus strains and suggested an important role of the soluble phenolic fraction. They also found that the relative lack of toxicity of juniper extracts on keratinocytes and fibroblastic cells, raised the possibility of their use in preventing bacterial skin infection." ^[EMNMPV.1]
• More Dosages: "56–74 ml tea (KAP); 10–15 berries/cup tea (MAD); 1 tsp (2–3 g) berries/150ml water 3–4 ×/day, for up to 4 weeks (SKY); 1–2 g fruit several ×/day (MAD); 1–2 g fruit or equivalent 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 2 tsp (9.8 g) fruit in cold infusion (MAD); 1 tsp fresh fruit (PED); 0.5–1 g dry fr (PED); 1 g dry fruit:5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 100 ml dried fruit infusion (1–20 in boiling water) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–10 g dry fruit (corresponding to 20–100 mg EO) (KOM); 1–3 g powdered fruit (KAP); 2–4 ml liquid fruit extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml fruit tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 1–2 (-6) minims juniper oil (KAP); 0.03–0.2 ml juniper EO (CAN; PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml spirit of juniper (PNC); 1 tbsp juniper syrup morning or night (APA)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
• Dosages for oral administration (adults); "Dried ripe fruits 100mL as an infusion (1:20 in boiling water) three times daily.(G7) Fruit 1–2g or equivalent three times daily; 2–10g (equivalent to 20–100mg of volatile oil).(G3) Liquid extract 2–4mL (1:1 in 25% alcohol) three times daily.(G7) Tincture 1–2mL (1:5 in 45% alcohol) three times daily.(G7)" ^[HerbalMed3]

Phytochemicals

• Volatile oil "(1-2%); make-up is very dependent upon the source of the drug, chief components monoterpene hydrocarbons, for example alpha-pinene, beta-myrcene, gamma-muurolen, sabinene, additionally including among others limonene, beta-elemene, beta-caryophyllene, beta-pinene, gamma-cadinene, terpinene-4-ol" ^[PDR] Volatile oils - "0.2–3.42%. Primarily monoterpenes (about 58%) including a-pinene, myrcene and sabinene (major), and camphene, camphor, 1,4-cineole, p-cymene, a- and g-cadinene, limonene, bpinene, g-terpinene, terpinen-4-ol, terpinyl acetate, a-thujene, borneol; sesquiterpenes including caryophyllene, epoxydihydrocaryophyllene and b-elemem-7a-ol.(3,4)" ^[HerbalMed3]
  • "The essential oil from unripe and ripe berries was predominated by D-pinene (39.7–64.9%) chemotype (Butkienë et al. 2004). Myrcene was the second major constituent (4.8–19.6%) followed by D-Cadinol (2.7–7.1%)." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • "Another analysis reported that juniper oil contained 41 and 27 components in the needles and berries, respectively (Shahmir et al. 2003). The needle oil consisted mainly of sabinene (40.7%), D-pinene (12.5%) and terpinen-4-ol (12.3%). The berry oil contained sabinene (36.8%), D-pinene (20%), limonene (10.6%), germacrene D (8.2%) and myrcene (4.8%) as the main components." ^[EMNMPV.1]
  • "The essential oil yields (w/w) were 0.78%, 0.70% and 0.12% for leaves, berries and wood, respectively (Marongiu et al. 2006). The leaf essential oil was made up of limonene (36.2%), E-selinene (15.2%) and D-terpinyl acetate (5.3%). The berry oil was composed mainly of: limonene (40.1%), germacrene D (17.2%) and D-pinene (4.7%). The oil derived from the wood mainly consisted of: limonene (8.9%), D-terpinyl acetate (9.7%) and germacrene D (8.6%). " ^[EMNMPV.1]
• Diterpenes ^[PDR]
• Catechin tannins ^[PDR] Tannins - "Proanthocyanidins (condensed), gallocatechin and epigallocatechin.(2) ^[HerbalMed3]
• Flavonoids ^[PDR] Flavonoids - "Amentoflavone,(1) quercetin, isoquercitrin, apigenin and various glycosides." ^[HerbalMed3]
• Monosaccharides: inverted sugar (20 to 30%) ^[PDR]
• Oligomeric proanthocyanidins ^[PDR]
• "Acids Diterpene acids, ascorbic acid and glucuronic acid." ^[HerbalMed3]
  
• Other constituents: "Geijerone (C12 terpenoid), junionone (monocyclic cyclobutane monoterpenoid),(5) desoxypodophyllotoxin (lignan),(6) resins and sugars." ^[HerbalMed3]
• Berries: "More than 200 constituents were detected in the supercritical CO2 extracts of ground J. communis berries, and the contents of 50 compounds were reported (BarjaktaroviÄ, et al. 2005)." ^[EMNMPV.1] "Berries contain 0.2–3.42% (usually 1–2%) volatile oil, depending on the geographic location, altitude, degree of ripeness, and other factors" ^{[Leung ECNI]}

Research

"Essential oils of Cupressus funebris, Juniperus communis, and J. chinensis were evaluated for repellence against adult yellow fever mosquitoes, Ae. Aegypti; hostseeking lone star tick nymphs, Amblyomma amerincanum; the blacklegged tick, I. scapularis, and for toxicity against Ae. aegypti larvae and adults [19]. All oils were repellent to both species of ticks. The EC₉₅ values of C. funebris, J. communis, and J. chinensis oils against A. americanum were 0.43, 0.51, and 0.92 mg oil/cm2 filter paper, respectively, compared to 0.68 mg DEET/cm2 filter paper. All I. scapularis nymphs were repelled by 0.10 mg oil/cm2 filter paper of C. funebris oil. At 4 h after application, 0.83 mg oil/cm2 filter paper, C. funebris and J. chinensis oils repelled >80% of A. americanum nymphs. The oils of C. funebris and J. chinensis did not prevent female Ae. aegypti from biting at the highest dosage tested (1.50 mg/ cm2). However, the oil of J. communis had a minimum effective dosage (estimate of ED 99) for repellence of 0.029+/-0.018 mg/cm2; this oil was nearly as potent as DEET. The oil of J. chinensis showed a slight ability to kill Ae. aegypti larvae, at 80 and 100% at 125 and 250 ppm, respectively." ^{[Gang 50]}

Lore

• "Whoever carries a Kranewitt bush [Wotan’s belt, Juniperus communis] on his hat is protected from dizzy spells and becoming tired. The smoke of the ‘Martin’s belt’ dispels snakes, worms, and spirits. The drink made from its berries enables one to see the future. HANS SCHÖPF ZAUBERKRÄUTER [MAGICAL PLANTS] (1986, 151f.*)" ^{[Ratsch EPP]}

Cultivation

"...An easily grown plant, it succeeds in hot dry soils and in poor soils. Succeeds in most soils so long as they are well drained[186], preferring a neutral or slightly alkaline soil. Does well in chalky soils[1]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Tolerates a pH range from 4 to 8[186]. Succeeds in light woodland but dislikes heavy shade[186]. Established plants are very tolerant of drought[186]. Although the fully dormant plant is cold-tolerant throughout Britain, the young growth in spring can be damaged by late frosts. All parts of the plant are very aromatic[245]. Juniper is a very polymorphic species that has a long history of culinary and medicinal use[244]. It is frequently grown in the ornamental and herb garden, there is a huge range of cultivars of widely diverse habits[11, 81]. At least some forms tolerate maritime exposure[186], there is a thriving colony in an exposed position at Land's End in Cornwall[81]. The fruits take 2 - 3 years to ripen on the plant[11]. Plants are usually very slow growing, often only a few centimetres a year[186]. Resists honey fungus[88]. Plants are sometimes attacked by a rust, this fungus has an aecidial stage on hawthorn (Crataegus spp.)[1]. Dioecious. Male and female plants must be grown if seed is required...." ^[PFAF]

"In Juniperus communis, the endophyte Aspergillus fumigatus was identified and reported to produce deoxypodophyllotoxin [33]." See journal; (Kusari S, Lamshöft M, Spiteller M (2009) Aspergillus fumigatus Fresenius, an endophytic fungus from Juniperus communis L. Horstmann as a novel source of the anticancer pro-drug deoxypodophyllotoxin. J Appl Microbiol 107:1019–1030) ^{[Jetter PBFA]}

Propagation

"The seed requires a period of cold stratification. The seed has a hard seedcoat and can be very slow to germinate, requiring a cold period followed by a warm period and then another cold spell, each of 2 - 3 months duration[78, 81]. Soaking the seed for 3 - 6 seconds in boiling water may speed up the germination process[11]. The seed is best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame. Some might germinate in the following spring, though most will take another year. Another possibility is to harvest the seed 'green' (when the embryo has fully formed but before the seedcoat has hardened). The seedlings can be potted up into individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow on in pots until large enough, then plant out in early summer. When stored dry, the seed can remain viable for several years[1]. Cuttings of mature wood, 5 - 10cm with a heel, September/October in a cold frame. Plant out in the following autumn[1, 78]. Layering in September/October. Takes 12 months[78].^{" [PFAF]}

"Vegetative: Mountain juniper can be propagated by cuttings and will root in a sand medium (Snyder 1991)."^[PPNWNP]

Use of Related Sp.

• "Various species of juniper (cf. Juniperus recurva) grow throughout the world, particularly in Europe, Asia (the Himalayan regions and Mongolia), and North America. They are used for ritual, magical, and medicinal purposes almost wherever they grow. In most cultures familiar with shamanism, juniper has a reputation for being a shamanic incense. Juniper is probably one of the oldest—it may even be the oldest—incense used by humans. This is certainly due to the fact that its leaves exude an exquisite and spicy aroma, even when burned fresh (Rätsch 1996a, 1996b)." ^{[Ratsch EPP]} "The Old World J. sabina contains sabinol, sabinyl acetate, perpinene, pinene, sabinene, decyl aldehyde citronellol, geraniol, cadinene, and dihydrocuminyl alcohol. However, J. virginiana is so similar that it is sometimes substituted commercially for J. sabina (Lawless 1995). These compounds are considered powerfully anthelmintic, diuretic, emmenagogue, rubefacient, stimulant, and a vermifuge, but they are so potent that they “should not be used in therapy, whether internally or externally” (Lawless 1995). Duke et al. (2002) admonish that extracts from J. virginiana may be fatal." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
• "Juniperus drupacea Labill. (Cupressaceae). juniper. The ancient Egyptians often used the branches of this juniper to grill their food because the smoke it produced gave the food a pleasant aroma (Manniche 1989). The branches were also used as general fumigants." ^[UAPDS]
• "Juniperus excelsa Willd. (Cupressaceae). Greek juniper. The leaves were burned as incense in Khorasan, Iran (Hooper and Field 1937)."^[UAPDS]
• Juniperus oxycedrus - Cade Juniper
  • "Algerians apply powdered rotten bark to facial cuts, leaf ashes in oil or water to piles (HJP)." ^[MPB-Duke]
  • "Lebanese crush and boil the berries, then soaking in oil for use in bladder and kidney ailments, or in alcohol as carminative and stomachic (HJP)." ^[MPB-Duke]
  • "Lebanese suggest berries crushed in sheep fat as an antiseptic vulnerary salve for wounds (HJP)." ^[MPB-Duke]
  • Activities: "Abortifacient (f1; VAD); Analgesic (f1; EFS; X9498241); Antiinflammatory (1; VAD; X9498241); Antipruritic (f; AYL; BIB); Antiseptic (f1; BRU; FNF; HOC); Bactericide (1; X12639746); Candidicide (1; X12639746); Carminative (f; BIB); Contraceptive (f; BIB); Diuretic (f; BIB; EFS); Emmenagogue (f1; VAD); Expectorant (f; VAD); Hypoglycemic (f; VAD); Insectiphile (1; X15279265); Keratolytic (f1; AYL; BIB; VAD); Parasiticide (1; BRU; FNF; HOC); Stimulant (f; BIB; EFS); Vermifuge (f; BIB; EFS); " ^[MPB-Duke]
• "Juniperus pinchotti Sudw. (Cupressaceae). Pinchot’s juniper. The Comanche of North America sprinkled dried leaves on their coal fires and inhaled the smoke to get relief from headaches, ghost sickness, and vertigo (Jones 1968)."^[UAPDS]
• Juniperus scopulorum: "The berry-like "cones" of Rocky Mountain juniper (J. scopulorum) are pitchy and strong-tasting, but were eaten in small quantities by the Lillooet of British Columbia, and possibly some other groups. The Lillooet believed that chewing a few fruits or a small piece of the bark would alleviate hunger for travellers. The branches, like those of the common juniper, were boiled to make a tea, but this was usually used more as a medicine than a beverage (Turner, 1978)." ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}
• "Juniperus virginiana L. var. silicicola (Small) Silba (Cupressaceae). southern red cedar. The Seminole of North America burned the leaves to fumigate their body for eagle sickness, fawn sickness, and ghost sickness (Sturtevant 1955). Smoke from the entire plant was used to fumigate the body to treat insanity. The species reported by Sturtevant (1955) was probably Juniperus silicicola (Small). L. H. Bailey (see Moerman 1998)." ^[UAPDS]
• "Juniperus virginiana L. var. virginiana (Cupressaceae). eastern red cedar. The Kiowa of North America burned the needles of this species for incense purposes during the prayer sessions of peyote meetings (Vestal and Schultes 1939). The species originally reported was Sabina virginiana Antoine." ^[UAPDS]

References

• [E-flora] Juniperus communis, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Juniperus communis&redblue=Both&lifeform=3 [Accessed: 1/16/2015]
• [PFAF] Juniperus communis, http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Juniperus+communis, Accessed Jan 16, 2015

Juniperus maritima - seaside juniper

Identification

This is a blue listed taxon in B.C. ^[E-flora]
General: Trees single stemmed to 15 m or more with pyramidal or round crown; seldom a sprawling shrub less than 1 m (wind-swept sites along the shore); bark brown, exfoliating in thin strips.^[1-E-flora]
Leaves: Mostly scale-like, with blunt tips and entire margin (20-x to 40-x magnification), leaves on young innovations needle-like. ^[1-E-flora]
Cones: Seed cones globose to kidney-shaped, 6-8 mm in diameter; black-blue to bluish-brown; seeds commonly excerted; maturing in 14-16 months; present from Fall to Winter. ^[1-E-flora]
Notes: The species, previously included in Juniperus scopulorum, is characterized by having seed cones that mature in one year (14-16 months), seeds usually exserted from the cone, obtuse scale leaf tips; scale leaves overlap less than 1/5 the length, and branchlets smooth and reddish-brown.^[1-E-flora]

Habitat / Range
Dry rocky shores of Georgia Strait (“Saalish Sea”) and Puget Sound exceptionally in higher elevation (Deer Park, Olympic Mountains); endemic in coastal SW BC and NW WA. Source: Adams, R.P. (2007, 2008).^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]

Juniperus scopulorum - Rocky Mountain juniper

Identification
"Juniperus scopulorum is an evergreen Tree growing to 10 m (32ft) by 4 m (13ft) at a slow rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 3. It is in leaf 12-Jan It is in flower from Apr to May, and the seeds ripen in October. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by Wind.The plant is not self-fertile. [PFAF]
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and prefers well-drained soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils.
It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerates strong winds but not maritime exposure."[PFAF]

"General: Usually a small, erect evergreen tree to 10 m tall, with conical form, but also a sprawling shrub less than 1 m; bark reddish-brown, scaly or fibrous and stringy. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}"
"Leaves: Mostly scalelike, opposite, not prickly, but young leaves needle-like, 5-7 mm long, in whorls of three on stem." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
"Cones: Seed cones fleshy, berrylike, 5-6 mm long, bluish-purple when mature, glaucous; pollen and seed cones on separate plants." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
"Notes: See J. horizontalis for discussion of hybridization." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Habitat / Range
"Dry open, often calcareous, rocky soils in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; infrequent in S BC, rare northward to Telegraph Creek; E to SW AB and S to AZ, NM, CO and W NE." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]

Ecological Indicator Information

"A very shade-intolerant, montane, Western North American evergreen coniferous shrub distributed more in the Cordilleran than the Pacific region. Occurs predominantly in continental cool temperate and cool semiarid climates on excessively dry to very dry and nitrogen-medium (often alkaline) soils; its occurrence increases with increasing continentality and temperature. In the coastal region, very sporadic in open­canopy shrub communities on very shallow, water-shedding sites of calcium-rich rock outcrops; common in the coast­interior ecotone. Characteristic of moisture-deficient sites." [IPBC]^[E-flora]

Edible Uses

• Fruit & Young Shoots: "A tea is made from the fruits and young shoots[183]." ^[PFAF]
  
• Fruit: "Fruit - raw or cooked[105, 161, 183]. Sweet and fleshy, but strongly flavoured[85, 229]. Resinous[227]. Often used as a flavouring, imparting a sage-like taste, for which purpose it is usually dried and ground into a powder[85, 183]. The fruit can also be dried and ground into a meal for making mush and cakes[183].The fruits are about 5 - 8mm in diameter[200, 227]. The roasted fruit is a coffee substitute[183]." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

"The boughs are used as an incense to fumigate houses and to drive off smells. The wood can be burnt or just hung in the room, or it can be boiled up in water and the water used to wash the walls, floor etc[99]. The bark is employed as a tinder and is also made into a slow match[216]. The dried seeds have been used as beads or as the 'rattle' in rattles[99, 216]. The fruits and the leaves are used as an insect repellent[169]. A strong infusion of the cones is used to kill ticks[99]." [PFAF]

• "Wood - extremely tough, aromatic, close grained, light, fairly strong in endwise compression but moderately weak in bending, hard, durable in the soil. Used for interior finishes, bows, hoops, hafts, wheels etc[99, 149, 227]." ^[PFAF]
  
• Wax: "A fragrant wax on the fruits can be obtained by boiling the fruit and skimming off the wax as it floats to the surface. It is used to make aromatic candles but is only present in small quantities[85]."[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

"Rocky Mountain juniper was widely employed medicinally by many native North American Indian tribes who used it in particular to treat problems connected with the chest and kidneys[257]. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism."[PFAF]

• Leaves: "The leaves are diaphoretic, disinfectant, febrifuge, haemostatic, laxative, sedative and tonic[99, 216, 257]. A decoction has been used in the treatment of internal bleeding, constipation and constant coughing[257]. The leaves have been boiled, then mixed with turpentine and used as an external treatment on rheumatic joints[257]. The leaves have been rubbed into the hair in order to treat dandruff[213, 257]." ^[PFAF]
  
• Fruit: "The fruits are appetizer, diuretic and stomachic[257]. An infusion has been used in the treatment of stomach, kidney and bladder problems[213, 257]." ^[PFAF]
  
• Branches: "A poultice of the mashed and dampened branches has been applied to skin sores[257]." ^[PFAF]
  
• Twigs: "An infusion of the twigs has been used in the treatment of fevers, pneumonia, coughs and colds[257]." ^[PFAF]
  
• Shoots: "A tea made from the terminal shoots has been used in the treatment of VD by some N. American Indian tribes[213]. The treatment has to be taken over a long period of time[257]."[PFAF]

Cultivation & Propagation

"The seed requires a period of cold stratification. The seed has a hard seedcoat and can be very slow to germinate, requiring a cold period followed by a warm period and then another cold spell, each of 2 - 3 months duration[78, 81]. Soaking the seed for 3 - 6 seconds in boiling water may speed up the germination process[11]. The seed is best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame. Some might germinate in the following spring, though most will take another year. Another possibility is to harvest the seed 'green' (when the embryo has fully formed but before the seedcoat has hardened). The seedlings can be potted up into individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow on in pots until large enough, then plant out in early summer. When stored dry, the seed can remain viable for several years[1]. Cuttings of mature wood, 5 - 10cm with a heel, September/October in a cold frame. Plant out in the following autumn[1, 78]. Layering in September/October. Takes 12 months[78]."[PFAF]

"Succeeds in most soils, including chalk[200], so long as they are well drained, preferring a neutral or slightly alkaline soil[1, 11]. A drought tolerant species once established, succeeding in hot dry positions[200]. Plants are fairly wind-resistant[200]. A long-lived but slow-growing tree in its native range[227], it is very slow growing in Britain where it only makes a shrub[185]. Closely allied to J. virginiana[1, 81] and hybridising with it where the ranges meet[226]. It differs mainly in the fruit, which takes two years to mature in this species instead of one[226]. Plants are resistant to honey fungus[88]. This tree is apparently resistant to the rust fungus that attacks the closely related J. virginiana[149]. Dioecious. Male and female plants must be grown if seed is required. Special Features: North American native, Fragrant foliage, Inconspicuous flowers or blooms." [PFAF]
"Plants can be grown as a ground cover, the cultivar 'Repens' is especially suitable[208]. A fairly wind resistant tree, it can be grown as part of a shelterbelt planting[200]. In N. America it is used to some extent in re-afforestation and shelterbelt plantings on the prairies[227]."[PFAF]

Uses of Juniper Sp.

Species Mentioned;
Juniperus sp.; J. communis, J. horizontalis, J. californica, J. occidentalis, J. scopulorum. [Schofield]

J. scopulorum. "All the species of Juniperus can be tried" including; J. communis, J. monosperma, J.osteosperma (J. utahensis), J. deppeana (J. pachyphloea). "The last two being recommended particularily" [Harrington]

J. scopulorum, J. occidentals, J. californica, J. osteosperma, J. monosperma, J. deppeana.[Berries]

Hazards

• Juniper should not be taken internally by pregnant women or by individuals with kidney problems. Juniper contains a potent volatile essential oil, oil of sabinal. In excess, juniper can cause severe renal damage and convulsions. Before taking for a medical condition, it is best to consult with a physician. [Schofield]
  
• Used in moderation (as all seasonings should be used), the herb should provide no problems for those in normal health. [Schofield]

Edible Uses

• Fruits: Some authors say juniper berries are toxic, especially for children or when eaten frequently or in large quantities. However, using a few for flavoring for meats or stews or for gin is acceptable. The extract of juniper leaves, oil of juniper, is TOXIC. [Berries]
  
  • Harvesting: Since juniper fruits take two to three years to mature, the plant can be harvested at any time. Only blue fruits should be collected for food and medicines. Fruits that are not fully mature are harvested for brewing alcoholic drinks as they are higher in essential oils.[Schofield]
    
• "In Sweden the ripe berries of the common juniper are made into a conserve, to eat on bread." ^[Berries]
• J. scopulorum - raw. strongly flavoured, but not actually inedible. Berries impart a sage like flavor to meat.[Harrington]
  
• J. scopulorum; The Indians used to dry the fruits, and stored them for the winter. These berries could then be ground into a meal and used to make mush or cakes. They could also be roasted and ground to make a substitute for coffee.[Harrington]
  
• Green Leaves:
• J. scopulorum - Put boiling water on the ashes and use the strained liquid as a flavor for various foods[Harrington]
  
• Inner Bark:
• J. scopulorum - In times of acute food shortage the Indians would sometimes peel off the inner bark of the trunk, and chew it to avoid actual starvation.[Harrington]
  
• Branches
• Roasts cooked on branches for the last ten minutes to impart a flavorful accent. Add a few juniper branches to alder chips when smoking fish and meats.[Schofield]
  
• Misc:
• Tea: "When serving juniper tea as a nonmedicinal beverage, prepare in an uncovered teapot to allow the potent volatile oils to escape."[Schofield]
• Flavoring: Primary use is as a seasoning. A pepper substitute. The resinous fruits add spicy flavor to foods. For meat, a half-dozen berries per half-pound of meat. Deseeded berries made into jam.[Schofield]
• Juniper berries are edible but have the odd flavor of gin. The juicy berries of one-seed juniper taste particularly bad.[Berries]
• J. scopulorum; The fruit and the young shoots have been used to make a kind of tea. It may be healthful, but we found it rather potent for our taste, although it is for sale in one grocery store in this area. The junipers are often very abundant; the berries are available through at least part of the winter, and the bark more or less at all times.[Harrington]

Other Uses

• Branches: "A decoction was used as an anti-dandruff hair rinse. The same fluid can be added to bath water to ease away aches and pains."[Schofield]
  
• Wax: Wax exists on juniper berries as thin layer that can be removed by boiling, and skimming them or by allowing the water to evaporate. With patience a usable amount of fragrant wax can be secured.[Harrington]
  
• Disinfectant: Burnt as a disinfectant.[Schofield]
  • Juniper was an ingredient in sixteenth century herbal blends (along with wormwood, elder, and roses) to fumigate rooms. This evergreen does, in fact, give off a disinfectant gas when it is burnt that effectively destroys infectious fungi. During epidemics, it was often burned in hospital rooms. The standard method involves igniting a branch, blowing out the fire, and waving the smouldering juniper in the room. If you have a sauna, you can place twigs and berries on the hot rocks and sprinkle them with water; the juniper steam serves the same purpose. It certainly adds a wonderful fragrance to the air.[Harrington]
    
  • "Plants were carried in pouches as protection against evil influences. When a person died, the bedding and belongings of the deceased were washed in a juniper decoction." [Schofield]
    
• Repellent: "Juniper wood can be shredded and placed in chests and drawers to repel moths." [Schofield]
  
• Wood: "In areas where juniper grows tree-sized, the wood is used in the manufacture of pencils and fence posts." [Schofield]
  
• Smoking Blend: "If you're a smoker out of tobacco, try a pipeful of dry juniper berries for a flavorful smoke." [Schofield]
  
• Misc: "When camping, you can use juniper bark as tinder, juniper boughs as a camping mat, and ashes of burnt juniper twigs as a powder for brushing your teeth." [Schofield]

Medicinal Uses

"From the Nez Perce in Idaho to the Navajo of Arizona, juniper tea was a treatment for colds, coughs, headaches, and flu. The Paiute of the Great Basin liked to boil the berries, skim off the pitch, and drink what was left or inhale the fumes." [Berries???]

"To treat sinus congestion, they made a hole in the septum of the nose and inserted a juniper twig." [Berries???]

• J. communis; "Juniper fruits are commonly used in herbal medicine, as a household remedy, and also in some commercial preparations. They are especially useful in the treatment of digestive disorders plus kidney and bladder problems."[4][PFAF]
  
• J. scopulorum; "Rocky Mountain juniper was widely employed medicinally by many native North American Indian tribes who used it in particular to treat problems connected with the chest and kidneys.[257] It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism."[PFAF]

More Uses

• "Juniper is frequently used by herbalists for urinary tract and bladder infections and inflammations.... ". . . a teaspoon of crushed berries or a rounded teaspoon of the leaves, steeped in a covered cup of water for fifteen minutes and drunk, one to three cups a day." To increase effectiveness of the brew, juniper is often blended with kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and cleavers (Galium aparine)." [Schofield]
  
• "Since juniper's essential oils can be irritating to the kidneys (see Caution, following), the herb is commonly buffered with herbs soothing and softening to body tissues (demulcents and emollients), such as comfrey, mallow, mullein, and slippery elm. Demulcent Alaskan herbs include Iceland moss, common plantain, and coltsfoot. Juniper blends are used for a variety of complaints, ranging from fluid retention and gas to poor appetite and stomach cramps." [Schofield]
  
• "Juniper oil extracts (obtained through distillation) are used as an external application for bone-joint difficulties, but herbalist John Lust warns ". . . the pure oil is irritating and in large quantities, can cause inflammation and blisters." A milder home product can be made by soaking juniper berries in olive oil; use as a massage oil for strained muscles or aching joints. To obtain juniper liniment, soak the fruits in everclear or witch hazel for two weeks; then strain the fluids and use this to rub down a horse's legs after a strenuous workout, or a human's back after a hard day." [Schofield]
  
• "Nibbling a few juniper berries or sipping juniper berry tea one hour before meals is of ten recommended to those troubIed by indigestion."[Schofield]
  
• "Dena'ina Athabascans drink juniper berry tea for sore throat, colds, tuberculosis, and difficulty in urination. Inupiat boil juniper berries and twigs to make a tea for respiratory problems. In the Kotzebue area, adds Anore Jones, "some people toast the leaves on the back of the stove in a room where there is a sick person so the rest of the family won't get sick." To prevent or cure a cold, slowly dissolving one juniper berry in your mouth daily is also recommended." [Schofield]
• Juniper-Bough Tea: "Juniper boughs can be used to make a tea that is quite pleasant if taken in small amounts. Place no more than 10 medium-sized young juniper sprigs (without berries) in 2 L (8 cups) or so of water. Bring to a boil, cover, reduce the heat. and allow to simmer for 15 minutes. Serve hot." [Coffee]
  
• Juniper-Berry Tea: "The berries can be used to make another type of tea that is especially good for mild stomach upset or coughs and congestion. Pour 250 ml (l cup) of boiling water over 5 ml (1 tsp) of dry crushed berries in a teapot and allow the mixture to steep for about 10 minutes. Add honey to taste." [Coffee]

Lore

Juniper had ceremonial and psychological uses, too. The Navajo carried a sprig of it at night to protect against ghosts and evil spirits. Cheyenne men carved juniper wood flutes, hoping the music would encourage young women to fall in love with them. If a Hopi child was naughty the mother could ask another woman to hold the child over a smoky juniper fire until the mother thought the young one had breathed enough smoke to cure the naughtiness. The Navajo dried the berries for necklaces and bracelets. Mothers put these "ghost beads" on their babies to prevent bad dreams. [Berries]

References

• [E-flora]
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Juniperus scopulorum&redblue=Both&lifeform=1, Accessed Jan 16, 2015
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Juniperus maritima&redblue=Both&lifeform=3[Accessed: 1/16/2015]
• [1-E-flora]Account Author:: Adolf Ceska.
  • Adams, R.P. 2007. Juniperus maritima, the seaside juniper, a new species from Puget Sound, North America. Phytologia 89(3): 263-283.
  • Adams, R.P. 2008. Junipers of the world: The genus Juniperus. Trafford Publishing Co., Vancouver, BC.
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Juniperus scopulorum&redblue=Both&lifeform=1[Accessed: 1/16/2015]
• [Jepson]Robert P. Adams & Jim A. Bartel, 2013. Juniperus, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=29753, accessed on Jan 16 2015
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Juniperus+scopulorum, Accessed Jan 16, 2015